What was the Papal Reform Movement and how did it affect England?
The Papal Reform Movement was a series of reforms which took place over the course of the medieval period. These reforms sought to change the papacy, in order for it to become more dominant while cleansing the clerical abuses of the church.
The Papacy
The papacy refers to the position or authority of the Pope, who was the leader of the Roman Catholic Church. The Pope was advised by cardinals, who were in charge of the bishops. Each bishop was assigned to and headed a cathedral – usually located within a city – and oversaw religious activities in their area; for example mass and sacraments. These activities were performed by priests. In more remote areas, abbeys were at the centre of religious life in place of a cathedral and were headed by abbots and administered by monks[1].
These bishops were selected through elections; the electorate being the clergy and the people of the area. There is, however, evidence that early bishops attempted to appoint their successors. These elections often prompted imperial intervention and eventually, the emperors presided over elections. The involvement of the Eastern emperor in papal affairs was gradually replaced by that of Germanic rulers and leading Roman families[2].
The Two Phases of the Papal Reform Movement
The Cluniac reforms
The Cluniac reforms were named after the town in Saote-et-loire, Cluny[3] and were initiated by Odo, who was the abbot of Cluny. Local aristocrats established religious buildings that they then considered as family property. Revenues made from these institutions were exploited by the owners, who appointed friends and relatives to serve the institutions and set the duties that these men and women were to perform. Spirituality suffered under these circumstances. Churchmen would find that Church land they had granted to warriors had been turned into hereditary holdings. Other cases saw nobles taking the post of bishops and converting the post into a family possession so that some areas were ruled by men called prince-bishops[4].
Odo of Cluny was “a man of determined will and wide view in regard to monastic reform” Duckett E. (1990). Death and Life in the Tenth Century (Ann Arbor Paperbacks). Edition. University of Michigan Press. Page 198. He was determined in a sense that he wanted to reform the Church in Cluny and rid of these monetary and hereditary exploits. He was heavily influenced by the rule of Saint Benedict of Nursia and at a younger age, bore the ‘mild monastic yoke’ of a monk.[5]
When Odo became the abbot of Cluny, he undertook to make it a centre of reform. His first step was to impose a strict discipline upon the community in order to strike secular visitors. Cluny reformed their own churches and monasteries in return for those reformed establishments belonging to Cluny and becoming independent of local officials. Priors were assigned to these establishments and were subject to the abbot of Cluny. These priors periodically held assemblies at Cluny where they discussed problems and recommended measures to the abbot in order to make official policy. Reform initiatives from all over Western Europe were considered at Cluny; which became the ‘dynamo that powered the engine of reform directed toward rescuing the Church from feudalism and rescuing lay society as well’. The Cluniac reforms were seen to have fulfilled the aspiration of the Rule of St. Benedict – which was to lead an example to monastic life and displayed the ideology of One Flock, One Shepherd, One Church[6].
“they worked for a universal and centralized ecclesiastical establishment, with the Bishop of Rome to whom scripture had given "the Keys to the Kingdom" as its supreme authority. This Church was to be independent of secular authority and, to be independent, its supreme authority had to stand on ground that owed no service to anyone other than himself. The pope had to be able to control the property, personnel, and rights of the Church, and to require the secular authority to obey and enforce the decisions which were his to make. The persistent pursuit of these aims overcame any resistance by secular authorities, most of who were sympathetic in the reform movement in any case. By the mid-eleventh century, the pope had been freed from local Roman politicians and the office was being filled with men thoroughly committed to the reform movement, and so the Cluniac Reform became a papal reform movement.” Vlib.us [Accessed 28-11-16]
The Cluniac reforms allowed the church to focus and ‘centralise’ power – which was separate to secular authorities. Although the church strove for this during the Cluniac reforms, this would be achieved through the total elimination of the clerical abuses. These abuses were to be dealt with through the Gregorian Reforms.
The Gregorian Reforms
The clerical abuses included:
Simony – The buying or selling of ecclesiastical privileges, for example, pardons or benefices.
Nepotism – The act of using your power or influence to get good jobs or unfair advantages for members of your own family.
Pluralism – The practice of holding more than one ecclesiastical office at a time.
And the lack of...
Celibacy – The state of intentionally not being married or having a sexual relationship.
The Gregorian reforms were named after Pope Gregory VII, who was seen as the most forceful advocate for clerical reform. He sought for moral integrity within the clergy and wanted to make the clergy independent from secular authority. The Pope set out his main points of reform in ‘The Dictatus Papae’, which was established during his pontificate.
The following are the 27 points set out in ‘The Dicatus Papae’
1. That the Roman church was founded by God alone.
2. That the Roman pontiff alone can with right be called universal.
3. That he alone can depose or reinstate bishops.
4. That, in a council his legate, even if a lower grade, is above all bishops, and can pass sentence of deposition against them.
5. That the pope may depose the absent.
6. That, among other things, we ought not to remain in the same house with those excommunicated by him.
7. That for him alone is it lawful, according to the needs of the time, to make new laws, to assemble together new congregations, to make an abbey of a canonry; and, on the other hand, to divide a rich bishopric and unite the poor ones.
8. That he alone may use the imperial insignia.
9. That of the pope alone all princes shall kiss the feet.
10. That his name alone shall be spoken in the churches.
11. That this title [Pope] is unique in the world.
12. That it may be permitted to him to depose emperors.
13. That he may be permitted to transfer bishops if need be.
14. That he has power to ordain a clerk of any church he may wish.
15. That he who is ordained by him may preside over another church, but may not hold a subordinate position; and that such a one may not receive a higher grade from any bishop.
16. That no synod shall be called a general one without his order.
17. That no chapter and no book shall be considered canonical without his authority.
18. That a sentence passed by him may be retracted by no one; and that he himself, alone of all, may retract it.
19. That he himself may be judged by no one.
20. That no one shall dare to condemn one who appeals to the apostolic chair.
21. That to the latter should be referred the more important cases of every church.
22. That the Roman church has never erred; nor will it err to all eternity, the Scripture bearing witness.
23. That the Roman pontiff, if he have been canonically ordained, is undoubtedly made holy by the merits of St. Peter; St. Ennodius, bishop of Pavia, bearing witness, and many holy fathers agreeing with him. As is contained in the decrees of St. Symmachus the pope.
24. That, by his command and consent, it may be lawful for subordinates to bring accusations.
25. That he may depose and reinstate bishops without assembling a synod.
26. That he who is not at peace with the Roman church shall not be considered catholic.
27. That he may absolve subjects from their fealty to wicked men.
The Dictatus Papae – https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictatus_papae [Accessed 30/11/2016]
As can be seen above, the main points set out in the document aim to target papal power. The Pope, according to the Dictatus Papae, the pope should be allowed depose emperors, not be judged by anyone and is the only pope in the world. The document also states how the Roman church was founded by God alone; also recognising that the church was of God.
There was no explicit mention for reforms against the act of simony. It was noted, however, Gregory’s Register entry for the Roman council of November 1078 extensively records Gregory’s legislation against ‘abuses’ such as simony[7]. During the Gregorian reforms, sacraments from simoniacs or those who carried out simony became invalid and re-ordinations of the clergy was necessary. Popular uprisings against simoniacal clergy broke out in Milan, led by the Patarines – a social and religious reform group drawn mainly from the lower classes[8]. The Pataria was an eleventh-century religious movement in the Archdiocese of Milan in northern Italy, aimed at reforming the clergy and ecclesiastic government in the province and was supportive of the Papal sanctions against simony and clerical marriage[9].
The lack of clerical celibacy was another problem which was targeted by the Gregorian reforms. Marriage among the lower ranks of the clergy was customary in much of the Western Church, the reform of the 11th century was determined to eliminate this behaviour. After the election of Pope Leo IX in early 1049, the papacy issued numerous decrees which required priests to give up their wives and barred the sons of priests from the priesthood with some exceptions under certain conditions. The decrees, however, had little effect on the supporters, who argued that the priests of the Old Testament had been married and that it was an accepted custom in the Eastern Church. Local pontiffs encountered virulent opposition, notably in 1075 at Constance when the local bishop was forced to allow married clergy to keep their positions. Pope Gregory VII was outraged at the fact that a bishop had defied a papal decree and the pope annulled all oaths of fealty to the bishop, who was expelled by the clergy and laity of Constance[10].
Papal supremacy would be achieved with the championship of compulsory celibacy among the clergy. Gregory VII published an encyclical, a circular letter sent to all bishops, absolving the people from their obedience to bishops who allowed married priests. The year after, he urged them to take action against married priests, depriving them of their revenue. The campaigns against priestly marriage and simony provoked widespread resistance. These reforms aimed to make the pope the absolute head of the church[11].
Pluralism and Nepotism were tackled with the introduction of canonical elections. The prohibition of lay investiture was rooted in Gregory’s determination to reform the troublesome state of Christendom, which had lost the original purity of the church of the Apostles. The Pope insisted on canonically elected bishops (for dioceses), provosts or priors (for reformed canons), and abbots (for monasteries)[12].
The following is an extract from present day canon law, and although is not from the medieval period, can still be applied in order to gain a view on how canon law worked.
CANON LAW 1983 - Article 3 – ELECTION
“§3. If more than one-third of the electors were overlooked, however, the election is null by the law itself unless all those overlooked were in fact present.” Present day Canon Law – http://www.vatican.va/archive/ENG1104/__PK.HTM [Accessed 30/11/2016]
Section 3 of Article 3 of Canon Law explains how elections are required as a means of deciding who inherits a role in the clergy. Canonical elections were introduced under Pope Gregory VII’s rule and were effective in making sure bishops and priests did not appoint their successors and the practice of lay investiture was removed.
The reform of the Church was Gregory VII’s life work, driven by his conviction that the Church was founded by God. The Pope wished for the papacy to become supreme over all human structures, especially the secular state and emphasised that disobedience to him was also disobedience to God. He also wished that all important matters of dispute were referred to Rome and appeals were to be addressed to the pope himself. The centralisation of ecclesiastical government in Rome naturally involved the restricting of the powers of bishops[13]. The Gregorian Reform increased obedience to papal legislation and was a stepping stone toward the papal monarchy of the 13th century[14].
Pope Gregory VII and Henry IV
The pope harshly blamed Henry IV for not negotiating in good faith and for having made royal appointments to the Italian bishoprics of Milan, Fermo, and Spoleto in accordance with old customs like simony and nepotism. These customs were abhorred by Gregory. He also blamed Henry for continued contact with five of his advisers who had been excommunicated earlier by the pope. Contact with excommunicated persons automatically entailed excommunication for the offender[15].
On January 24, 1076, at the imperial assembly of Worms, Henry IV and various German bishops renounced their obedience to the papacy in response to Gregory’s letter and oral message concerning the malpractice of the emperor. The king called on Gregory to abdicate and on the Romans to elect a new pope. Northern Italian bishops immediately joined in and also renounced their support for Gregory as a protest against the Gregorian reforms. The outraged pope reacted immediately by using a prayer to Peter to depose and excommunicate Henry. He believed he had “historical precedents” on his side and the effect of the excommunication was tremendous. Gregory VII pursued his conviction that papal primacy pertained not only to the spiritual sphere but to the secular sphere as well. Church reform became a contest for dominance between the priestly and the royal powers. Eventually, in order to save his crown, Henry IV submitted to the pope at the castle of Canossa on January 28, 1077[15].
Conclusion
The papal reform movement involved the two phases, which sought to cleanse the church from malpractice and increase papal primacy within the secular world. These reforms impacted all clerical states including England, as the clergy in those countries were reformed; becoming more strict and subject to the pope and God.
REFERENCES
[1] People of our everyday life – ‘The Structure of Medieval Catholic Churches’
http://peopleof.oureverydaylife.com/structure-medieval-catholic-churches-7310.html [Acessed 24/11/2016]
[2]Britannica – Papacy
https://www.britannica.com/topic/papacy [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[3] New advent – Congregation of Cluny
http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04073a.htm [Accessed 28-11-16]
[4] vlib.us – Cluny and Ecclesiastical Reform
http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/cluny.html [Accessed 28-11-16]
[5] Duckett, E. (1988). Death and Life in the Tenth Century (Ann Arbor Paperbacks). Edition. University of Michigan Press. Page 199
[6] vlib.us – Cluny and Ecclesiastical Reform
http://www.vlib.us/medieval/lectures/cluny.html [Accessed 28-11-16]
[7] Wikipedia: Gregorian Reform
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_Reform#cite_note-2 [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[8] Britannica – Gregorian Reform
https://www.britannica.com/event/Gregorian-Reform#ref710870 [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[9] Wikipedia: Pataria
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pataria [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[10]Britannica – Gregorian Reform
https://www.britannica.com/event/Gregorian-Reform#ref710870 [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[11]Wikipedia: Gregorian Reform
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_Reform#cite_note-2 [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[12] Britannica – Gregorian Reform
https://www.britannica.com/event/Gregorian-Reform#ref710870 [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[13]Wikipedia: Gregorian Reform
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_Reform#cite_note-2 [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[14]Britannica – Gregorian Reform
https://www.britannica.com/event/Gregorian-Reform#ref710870 [Accessed 30/11/2016]
[15]Britannica – Saint Gregory VII
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Saint-Gregory-VII [Accessed 2/12/2016]